Ernest H. Williams, Jr.

William R. Kenan Professor of Biology Emeritus

The Nature HandbookThe Nature Handbook

Chapter 3, Plant Features

References

  • Abbott, R.J., & J. Schmitt. 1985. Effect of environment on percentage female ray florets per capitulum and outcrossing potential in a self-incompatible composite (Senecio vulgaris var. hibernicus). New Phytol. 101:219-230.
  • Adler, L.S. 2002. Host effects on herbivory and pollination is a hemiparasitic plant. Ecology 83:2700-2710.
  • Arms, K., & P.S. Camp. 1995. Biology, 4th ed. Harcourt Brace & Co., Orlando, FL.
  • Bao, Y., & E.T. Nilsen. 1988. The ecophysiological significance of leaf movements in Rhododendron maximum. Ecology 69:1578-1587.
  • Barlow, C. 2001. Ghost stories from the Ice Age. Nat. Hist. (Sep 2001):62-67.
  • Bazzaz, F.A. 1996. Plants in Changing Environments. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.
  • Begon, M., J.L. Harper, & C.R. Townsend. 1996. Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities. Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford, U.K.
  • Berg, V.S., & T.C. Hsiao. 1986. Solar tracking: light avoidance induced by water stress in leaves of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seedlings in the field. Crop Sci. 26:980-986.
  • Campbell, N.A., & W.W. Thomson. 1977. Multivacuolate motor cells in Mimosa pudica. Ann. Bot. 41:1361-1362.
  • Connor, E.F., & M.P. Taverner. 1997. The evolution and adaptive significance of the leaf-mining habit. Oikos 79:6-25.
  • Cooper, S.M., & N. Owen-Smith. 1986. Effects of plant spinescence on large mammalian herbivores. Oecologia 68:446-455.
  • Dunn, I.S., D.J. Liberato, N. Castagnoli, & V.S. Byers. 1986. Influence of chemical reactivity of urushiol-type haptens on sensitization and the induction of tolerance. Cellular Immunol. 97:189-196.
  • Dunphy, J. 1999. Poison ivy, oak, & sumac information center: questions and answers. //poisonivy.aesir.com/faq.html/
  • Ehleringer, J., & I. Forseth. 1980. Solar tracking by plants. Science 210:1094-1098.
  • Ehleringer, J.R., I. Ullmann, O.L. Lange, G.D. Farquhar, I.R. Cowan, E.D. Schulze, & H. Ziegler. 1986. Mistletoes: a hypothesis concerning morphological and chemical avoidance of herbivory. Oecologia 70:234-237.
  • Eisner, T. 1981. Leaf folding in a sensitive plant: A defensive thorn exposure mechanism. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 78:402-404.
  • Ellison, A.M., & N.J. Gotelli. 2001. Evolutionary ecology of carnivorous plants. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16:623-629.
  • Ellison, A.M., & N.J. Gotelli. 2002. Nitrogen availability alters the expression of carnivory in the northern pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea. P.N.A.S. 99:4409-4412.
  • Fleurat, L.P., A.C. Schmit, M. Vantard, H. Stoekel, & G. Roblin. 1993. Characterization and immunocytochemical distribution of microtublues and F-actin filaments in protoplasts of Mimosa pudica motor cells. Plant Physiol Biochem. 31:757-764.
  • Fromm, J. 1991. Control of ploem unloading by actin potentials in Mimosa. Physiol. Planatarum 83:529-533.
  • Galen, C. 1999. Sun stalkers. Nat. Hist. (May, 1999):49-51.
  • Garrec, J.P., & A. Barrois. 1992. Sorption and permeation caharacteristics of bark: Penetration of potassium phosphonate and water through isolated bark. Env. Exp. Bot. 32:11-23.
  • Gibson, T.C. 1991. Differential escape of insects from carnivorous plant traps. Am. Midl. Nat. 125:55-62.
  • Givnish, T.J., E.L. Burkhardt, R.E. Happel, & J.D. Weintraub. 1984. Carnivory in the bromeliad Brocchinia reducta with a cost-benefit analysis for the general restriction of carnivorous plants to sunny moist nutrient-poor habitats. Am. Nat. 124:479-497.
  • Gotelli, N.J., & A.M. Ellison. 2002. Nitrogen deposition and extinction risk in the northern pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea. Ecology 83:2758-2765.
  • Green, P.B. 1999. Expression of pattern in plants: Combining molecular and calculus-based biophysical paradigms. Am. J. Bot. 86:1059-1076.
  • Green, P.B., & D.R. Baxter. 1987. Phyllotactic patterns: Characterization by geometrical activity at the formative region. J. Theoret. Biol. 128:387-396.
  • Hollins, D.L., & M.J. Jaffe. 1997. On the role of tannin vacuoles in several nastic leaf responses. Protoplasma 199:215-222.
  • Holmes, M.G., & D.R. Keiller. 2002. Effects of pubescence and waxes on the reflectance of leaves in the ultraviolet and photosynthetic wavebands: a comparison of a rangte of species. Plant Cell Env. 25:85-93.
  • Hutchins, R.E. 1969. Galls and Gall Insects. Dodd, Mead & Co., NY.
  • Kevan, P.G. 1972. Heliotropism in some arctic flowers. Canad. Field-Nat. 86:41-44.
  • Kirchoff, B.K. 1984. On the relationship between phyllotaxy and vasculature: a synthesis. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 89:37-51.
  • Knott, R. 2002. Fibonacci numbers and nature. www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html
  • Kozlowski, T.T., & S.G. Pallardy. 1997. Physiology of Woody Plants, 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA
  • Krafft, C.C., & S.N. Handel. 1991. The role of carnivory in the growth and reproduction of Drosera filiformis and D. rotundifolia. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 118:12-19.
  • Krebs, C.J. 2001. Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance., 5th ed. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
  • Lucas, P.W., I.M. Turner, N.J. Dominy, & N. Yamashita. 2000. Mechanical defenses to herbivory. Ann. Bot. 86:913-920.
  • Luzar, N., & G. Gottsberger. 2001. Flower heliotropism and floral heating of five alpine plant species and the effect on flower visiting in Ranunculus montanus in the Austrian Alps. Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res. 33:93-99.
  • Masuda, T., et al. 1996. Enzymatic activities for the synthesis of chlorophyll in pigment-deficient variegated leaves of Euonymus japonicus. Plant Cell Phys. 37:481-487.
  • Mathias Botanical Garden. 2002. General properties of parasitic plants. www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/lifeforms/parasiticplants/generalproperties.html
  • Mathias Botanical Garden. 2002. Variegated leaves. www.botgard.ucla.edu/htm/botanytextbooks/generalbotany/shootfeatures/general structure/leafcolor/variegation.html
  • Milewski, A.V., T.P. Young, & D. Madden. 1991. Thorns as induced defenses: experimental evidence. Oecologia 86:70-75.
  • Miller, P. 1994. The biology and distribution of parasitic plants within the Orobanchaceae: an overview of secondary plant compound imvolvement. www.colostate.edu/Depts/Entomology/courses/en570/papers_1994/miller.html
  • Mitchison, G.J. 1977. Phyllotaxis and the Fibonacci series, Science 196:270-275.
  • Mooney, H.A., & J.R. Ehleringer. 1978. The carbon gain benefits of solar tracking in a desert annual. Plant Cell Env. 1:307-311.
  • Moshelion, M., & N. Moran. 2000. Potassium-efflux channels in extensor and flexor cells of the motor organ of Samanea aman are not identical. Plant Physiol. 14:911-919.
  • Nilsen, E.T. 1990. Why do rhododendron leaves curl? Arnoldia 50:30-35.
  • Price, P.W., G.W. Fernandes, & G.L. Waring. 1987. Adaptive nature of insect galls. Env. Entomol. 16:15-24.
  • Prichard, J.M., & I.N. Forseth. 1988. Rapid leaf movement, microclimate, and water relations of two temperate legumes in three contrasting habitats. Am. J. Bot. 75:1201-1211.
  • Pritchard, I.M., & R. James. 1984. Leaf mines: their effect on leaf longevity. Oecologia 64:132-139.
  • Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, & S.E. Eichhorn. 1999. Biology of Plants, 6th ed. W.H. Freeman and Co., NY.
  • Reese, C.S.L., & E.M. Barrows. 1980. Co-evolution of Claytonia virginica (Portulacaeae) and its main native pollinator, Andrena erigeniae (Andrenidae). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 82:685-694.
  • Ridley, J.N. 1986. Ideal phyllotaxis on general surfaces of revolution Math. Biosci. 79:1-24.
  • Sanberg, P.R. 1976. Neural capacity in Mimosa pudica: A review. Behav. Biol. 17:435-452.
  • Schnell, D.E. 2002. Carnivorous Plants of the United States and Canada, 2nd ed. Timber Press, Portland, OR
  • Schulze, W., & E.D. Schulze. 1990. Insect capture and growth of the insectivorous Drosera rotundifolia L. Oecologia 82:427-429.
  • Scoble, M.J. 1995. The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford. (126-7).
  • Sherry, R.A., & C. Galen. 1998. The mechanism of floral heliotropism in the snow buttercup, Ranunculus adoneus. Plant Cell Env. 21:983-993.
  • Shorthouse, J.D., & O. Rohfritsch (eds.). 1992. Biology of Insect-Induced Galls. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
  • Smith, R.L., & T.M. Smith. 2001. Ecology & Field Biology, 6th ed. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
  • Stager, C. 1998. Field Notes from the Northern Forest. Syracuse Univ. Press, Syracuse.
  • Stanton, M.L., & C. Galen. 1989. Consequences of flower heliotropism for reproduction in an alpine buttercup (Ranunculus adoneus). Oecologia 78:477-485.
  • Stokes, D.W. 1981. The Natural History of Wild Shrubs and Vines. Harper & Row, NY.
  • Tscharntke, T. 1989. Changes in shoot growth of Phragmites australis caused by the gall maker Giraudiella inclusa (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Oikos 54:370-377.
  • Wallace, L.L., P. Timpano, & P. Durgin. 1987. Leaf folding in Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae): A nutrient conservation mechanism. Amer. J. Bot. 74:132-135.
  • Weisberg, L.A., L.E. Wimmers, & R. Turgeon. 1988. Photoassimilate-transport characteristics of nonchlorophylous and green tissue in variegated leaves of Coleus blumei Benth. Plant 175:1-8.
  • Williams, R.F., & E.G. Brittain. 1984. A geometrical model of phyllotaxis. Aust. J. Bot. 32:43-72.

Photo Information

Fig. 3.1. Leaf hairs:

  1. common mullein, Verbascum thapsus; Utica Marsh, Oneida Co., NY; 20 Jul 2001; EHW
  2. blazing star, Mentzelia sp.; Cody, WY; 26 Jul 2002; EHW
  3. New England aster, Aster novae-angliae; Clinton, NY; Jun 2003; EHW

 

Fig. 3.2. Sharp, protective structures:

  1. cactus, Opuntia polyacantha; Cody, WY; 27 Jul 2002; EHW
  2. hawthorn, Crateagus sp.; Rome Sand Plains, Oneida Co., NY; May 2002; EHW
  3. honeylocust, Gleditsia triacanthos; Clinton, NY; 7 Aug 2002; EHW
  4. multiflora rose, Rosa multiflora; Clinton, NY; 4 Nov 2002; EHW

Fig. 3.3. Resins and waxes:

  1. lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta; Yellowstone Nat’l Pk; 9 Aug 2003; EHW
  2. gumweed, Grindelia squarrosa; nr. Cody, WY; 11 Aug 2003; EHW
  3. blue spruce, Picea pungens; Missoula, MT; 29 Jul 2003; EHW
  4. juniper, Juniperus communis; Cody, WY; 27 Jul 2002; EHW

Fig. 3.4. Variegated leaves:

  1. common burdock, Arctium minus; Broome Co., NY; 2003; Nellie Watson
  2. Norway maple, Acer platanoides; Clinton, NY; Aug 2002; EHW

Fig. 3.5. Galls:

  1. ball gall on tall goldenrod, Solidago altissima; Clinton, NY; 16 Sep 2001; EHW
  2. ball gall on tall goldenrod, Solidago altissima; Clinton, NY; 16 Sep 2001; EHW
  3. aphid galls on wild grape, Vitis labrusca; Utica Marsh, Oneida Co., NY; 17 Sep 2001; EHW
  4. wool sower gall on white oak, Quercus alba; Rome Sand Plains, Oneida Co., NY; 21 Jun 2003; EHW
  5. gall on white spruce, Picea glauca; Kananaskis region, AB; 22 Jul 2003; EHW

Fig. 3.6. Leaf mines of insects:

  1. blotch mine on blue vervain, Verbena hastata; Clinton, NY; 22 Jul 2001; EHW
  2. trail mines on raspberry, Rubus sp.; Clinton, NY; 22 Jul 2001; EHW
  3. trail mine on quaking aspen, Populus tremuloides; Utica Marsh, Oneida Co., NY; 26 Aug 2002; EHW

Fig. 3.7. Plant spirals:

  1. leaves on a stem of trail plant, Adenocaulon bicolor; Ft Bragg, CA; William Pfitsch
  2. giant sunflower, Helianthus annuus; nr. Powell, WY; 19 Aug 2001; EHW
  3. cone scales of Ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa; so. MT; ca. 1978; EHW

Fig. 3.8. Lenticels:

  1. pin cherry, Prunus pensylvanica; Rome Sand Plains, Oneida Co., NY; 7 May 2001; EHW
  2. pear, Pyrus sp.; early Oct 2001; EHW
  3. paper birch, Betula papyrifera; Clinton, NY; 19 Mar 2003; EHW

Fig. 3.9. Carnivorous plants:

  1. purple pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea; Fiddler’s Green, Madison Co., NY; 15 Sep 2001; EHW
  2. yellow pitcher plant, Sarracenia flava; Green Swamp, NC; 17 Jun 2002; EHW
  3. round-leaved sundew, Drosera rotundifolia; Fiddler’s Green, Madison Co., NY; 15 Sep 2001; EHW
  4. Venus fly trap, Dionaea muscipula; Roger Rageot

Fig. 3.10. Parasitic plants:

  1. white paintbrush, Castilleja longispica; Beartooth Mtns, WY; 6 Jul 1977; EHW
  2. clustered broomrape, Orobanchefasciculate; Beartooth Mtns, WY; 14 Jul 1975; EHW
  3. Indian pipe, Monotropa uniflora; Rome Sand Plains, Oneida Co., NY; 27 Aug 2002; EHW

Fig. 3.11. Poison plants:

  1. leaves; David Liebman
  2. poison ivy, Toxicodendron radicans; Cape Cod, MA; 9 Apr 2003; EHW

Fig. 3.12. wild blue lupine, Lupinus perennis; Rome Sand Plains, Oneida Co., NY; 9 Jun 2001; EHW

Fig. 3.13. Solar tracking flowers:

  1. little sunflowers, Helianthellauniflora; Beartooth Mtns, WY; 27 Jul 2002; EHW
  2. subalpine buttercups, Ranunculus eschscholtzii; Beartooth Mtns, WY; 11 Jun 1981; EHW

Fig. 3.14. sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica; David Liebman

Fig. 3.15. Leaves of the same rhododendron shrub; Clinton, NY:

  1. mid-summer; 26 Jul 2001; EHW
  2. mid-winter; Feb 2001; EHW
  3. data from winter to summer 2001; EHW

Fig. 3.16. plant patches; Utica Marsh, Oneida Co., NY; 5 Sep 2002; EHW

Back to Top